Karen Kline, DVM, MS, DACVIM (Neurology) talks about the process of neurolocalization 

Segmenting the spinal cord for neurolocalization

In an interview earlier this winter, Karen Kline, DVM, MS, DACVIM (Neurology) talked to 

about her lecture “Neurolocalization Two: The String Cheese Incident,” presented at the Fetch dvm360 conference in Long Beach, California. In the interview, Kline discusses why neurolocalization in the spinal cord and neuromuscular system is important. She also explains how the spinal cord is segmented, and how neurologic findings correlate with disease processes.

Below is the interview transcript. It has been lightly edited for clarity.

Karen Kline, DVM, MS, DACVIM (Neurology): 

This lecture is designed to help us determine where the problem is in our spinal cord and our neuromuscular systems. Very important, because when we have an animal who comes in that's not using their legs, it may just not be spinal cord, it may be a problem with the muscles and nerves themselves.

What we do with our spinal cord is divide it up into 4 segments—C1 to C5; C6 to T2; T3 L3, and L4 to S2—and we define how we're localizing based on the specific neurologic findings with each particular place within the spinal cord. So those findings correlate with disease processes, but also what that patient looks like on presentation. So, we try to break it down in a very efficient manner, but also make it easy to understand.

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Happy Friday dvm360 readers! We hope everyone had a great first full week of 2025 and are ready to tackle the new year. If you want to begin scheduling your continuing education for the year, we have 5 Fetch conferences throughout the United States! Our first one of 2025 is a little over 2 months away in Charlotte, North Carolina. Fetch Charlotte is not one to miss so learn more and secure your spot 

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The US Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, and the Washington State Department of Agriculture 

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A new federal order issued by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) is mandating that raw, or unpasteurized, milk samples nationwide now be collected and shared with the agency for testing. The new order adds to the USDA’s National Milk Testing Strategy (NMTS), which expands on efforts by the USDA and federal and state partners since the detection of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in dairy cattle in March 2024.

Per the USDA announcement, as part of the new federal order, it will now be required that

Raw milk samples be shared, upon request, from any entity responsible for a dairy farm, bulk milk transporter, bulk milk transfer station, or dairy processing facility that sends or holds milk intended for pasteurization.

Herd owners with positive cattle provide epidemiological information that enables activities like contact tracing and disease surveillance.

Private laboratories and state veterinarians report positive results to the USDA that come from tests done on raw milk samples drawn as part of the NMTS.

Mandatory testing of lactating cows before interstate shipment will still be required. Additionally, privately owned laboratories and state veterinarians must still report positive test results linked to the corresponding tests.

“Since the first HPAI detection in livestock, USDA has collaborated with our federal, state and industry partners to swiftly and diligently identify affected herds and respond accordingly. This new milk testing strategy will build on those steps to date and will provide a roadmap for states to protect the health of their dairy herds,” said Tom Vilsack, Agriculture secretary, in a USDA release.

According to the USDA, the NMTS was created to

increase USDA’s and public health partners’ understanding of the virus’ spread in the United States through a structured, uniform, and mandatory testing system that will help identify which states and specific herds within them are affected with H5N1

support the rapid implementation of improved biosecurity measures to decrease the risk of transmission to other livestock

inform critical efforts to protect farmworkers to help lower their risk of exposure

The NMTS will involve collaboration between USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and each state in the contiguous US to carry out testing that meets the specific needs of each state while aligning with the strategy’s standards. Once a state begins testing, APHIS will place it into 1 of 5 stages based on HPAI H5N1 prevalence:

(Standing Up Mandatory USDA National Plant Silo Monitoring): involves testing milk silos at dairy processing facilities

(Determining a State’s H5N1 Dairy Cattle Status)

USDA will “stand up” bulk tank sampling programs to detect herds within the state that are infected with the virus

(Detecting and Responding to the Virus in Affected States): focuses on detecting cases of H5N1 and effecting rapid response measures like enhanced biosecurity, movement controls, and contact tracing

(Demonstrating Ongoing Absence of H5 in Dairy Cattle in Unaffected States):

involves regular sampling to ensure the disease has not re-emerged, with sampling frequency decreasing as long as the state remains free of the virus

(Demonstrating Freedom from H5 in U.S. Dairy Cattle):

Once all states pass Stage 4, periodic sampling will be conducted to confirm long-term absence of the virus in the national herd

States included in the initial rounds of testing, per the federal order comprise of both states with dairy cows affected by H5N1 and those with no reports.

 The first 6 states, announced December 6, 2024, are California, Colorado, Michigan, Mississippi, Oregon, and Pennsylvania.

Seven additional states were added thereafter: Indiana, Maryland, Montana, New York, Ohio, Vermont, and Washington.

 Eight of these states are also part of the top 15 dairy-producing states in the US, contributing to nearly half of the country’s dairy production.

“This testing strategy is a critical part of our ongoing efforts to protect the health and safety of individuals and communities nationwide,” Xavier Becerra, Health and Human Services (HHS) secretary, said in the release.

 “Our primary responsibility at HHS is to protect public health and the safety of the food supply, and we continue to work closely with USDA and all stakeholders on continued testing for H5N1 in retail milk and dairy samples from across the country to ensure the safety of the commercial pasteurized milk supply. We will continue this work with USDA for as long and as far as necessary.”

USDA announces new federal order, begins national milk testing strategy to address H5N1 in dairy herds. News release. US Department of Agriculture. December 6, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://www.usda.gov/article/usda-announces-new-federal-order-begins-national-milk-testing-strategy-address-h5n1-dairy-herds

USDA creates milk testing strategy to combat H5N1 in dairy cattle. American Veterinary Medical Association. December 30, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://www.avma.org/news/usda-creates-milk-testing-strategy-combat-h5n1-dairy-cattle?utm_source=delivra&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=todays-headlines-news

The USDA is collecting raw milk samples as part of its National Milk Testing Strategy to address bird flu

Unpasteurized milk will now be tested in effort to tackle H5N1 in dairy cattle

Being a first-generation immigrant in the United States comes with a host of challenges, particularly when you're an only child—and a daughter—in a family that holds deep cultural values. Growing up in a South Asian and Caribbean household often means navigating the expectations of my parents, who immigrated to the US from Guyana in pursuit of better opportunities for their children. For many, this journey is one of sacrifice and hard work with hopes pinned on their children's success in fields they deem prestigious or financially secure. For me, the struggle to forge my own path led me to veterinary medicine, a career that not only defied family expectations, but also tested my identity as an only child and a woman raised in a culturally complex household.

My mother, a Licensed Practical Nurse who spent years in the field, worked tirelessly to provide for our family, while my father, a quiet but equally hard-working man, supported us in every way possible. Growing up in such an environment instilled in me the values of hard work, perseverance, and that anything worth having must be earned through sheer effort. However, it also meant that my parents’ dreams for me were often shaped by their struggles and what they considered "stable" professions like careers in human medicine.

As an only child, the weight of these expectations felt particularly heavy. I wasn’t just their daughter; I was their only hope for upward mobility. My mother envisioned me following in her footsteps and becoming a doctor or pursuing some other career in human medicine. The narrative of becoming a physician was reinforced daily. “You’ll be a doctor one day,” she would say, a phrase that reverberated through my childhood and adolescence.

There was a part of me that always felt disconnected from this dream. The idea of working in human medicine didn’t excite me because I knew I wanted to somehow work with animals. That was the secret I had buried deep inside me, a passion that I didn’t know how to express—let alone pursue—when it seemed so out of place in my household.

It wasn’t until college that I began to understand my true calling. I entered college as a pre-med student, driven by the belief that this was the path my family envisioned for me. However, I quickly realized that human medicine wasn’t where my heart was. The pressure of trying to fit into a career that didn’t resonate with me made it harder to focus, and I was constantly questioning my choices. During this period of uncertainty, a simple comment from a friend shifted the course of my life, they said I should pursue veterinary medicine.

At the time, I wasn’t sure what veterinary medicine entailed beyond the basics, but when that friend suggested it a light bulb went off. I thought back to 2012 when my parents had given me a sun conure Brock, named after a character from Pokémon, and he became the light of my life. His cheerful personality and the way we connected on an emotional level was a reminder of my deep bond with animals. Everyone around me knew how much I adored Brock, and it clicked: I wanted to spend my life helping animals. The idea of becoming a veterinarian suddenly felt like an answer to a question I didn’t even know I was asking.

Brock, the sun conure  (Image courtesy of Ashley Lall)

Once I discovered my passion for veterinary medicine, the next hurdle was convincing my parents to accept this decision. In a South Asian and Caribbean household, where success is often measured by achievements in more conventional professions, the idea of becoming a veterinarian was met with skepticism. My parents thought veterinary medicine wasn’t a “real” career in the way human medicine was because it wasn’t prestigious or financially stable to them. In their world, animals weren’t seen as deserving of the same level of attention and care as humans. The emotional and financial investment of pursuing such a career seemed illogical and impractical.

I felt the weight of their disappointment keenly because I wasn’t just fighting for my career choice—I was fighting for my sense of self. I wanted to honor my parents’ sacrifices and make them proud, but I also needed to follow my own passion. It was an emotional tug-of-war that sometimes left me feeling isolated.

There were many difficult conversations—arguments, tears, and countless attempts to explain why I felt so strongly about becoming a veterinarian. My mother, especially, couldn’t understand why I would choose to work with animals when human lives were at stake. “What about helping people?” she would ask. It took a long time to explain that my desire to help others wasn’t exclusive to humans. I loved animals deeply, and felt a profound sense of purpose in caring for them, especially at their most vulnerable.

Despite these challenges, I pressed on. The more I learned about veterinary medicine, the more I knew it was the right path for me. Eventually, my parents began to see the dedication and passion I had for animals. It wasn’t an overnight change, but slowly, they began to accept that it was okay for my path to be different. I learned to advocate for myself, to communicate my desires clearly, and to show my parents that my happiness and fulfillment were worth the risk of a less conventional career.

Becoming a veterinarian wasn’t just about the animals; it was about finding my voice as a daughter in an immigrant family, and as an individual who refused to let anyone else dictate her path. It was a long and difficult journey, but in the end, I found a career that gives me purpose and allowed me to bridge the gap between my cultural heritage and my personal passions.

Today, as I work toward becoming a veterinarian, I am proud of my path. I know being a first-generation South Asian and Caribbean woman in this field is no small feat, but I hope my journey will inspire others who feel torn by family expectations and their own dreams. It’s a hard road, but it’s a road worth walking if it means creating a life that is truly your own.

is a 24-year-old first-generation New Yorker born to immigrant parents from Guyana. Lall is hearing impaired and currently attend veterinary school at the University of Bristol in the United Kingdom, with a passion for avian medicine. Her goal is to make a difference in animal care.

My journey finding veterinary medicine, and how it helped me learn to advocate for myself 

Becoming a first-generation veterinarian

Animal sheltering practices in the United States have improved significantly over the past several decades, but outdated ‘pound model’ ideologies still shape the system. According to a pair of animal sheltering scholars, despite progress in reducing shelter intake and euthanasia rates, the system continues to rely on confining animals, restricting their freedom, and using euthanasia to address overcrowding. In a paper published in 

, authors Katja M Guenther, PhD, MA, a professor at the University of California, Riverside; and Kristen Hassen, MA, a Center for Animal Studies and Public Policy fellow at the Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine in North Grafton, Massachusetts, opined that to create a more compassionate and effective system, we must confront the historical roots of these practices, recognize their lasting impact, and pursue humane alternatives for the future.

In the late 19th century, local governments introduced the pound model to control free-roaming animals, particularly dogs and cats. Inspired by English animal enclosures, where humans confined stray livestock, the system focused on capturing and euthanizing animals to manage overpopulation. Since stray cats and dogs had no market value, authorities put down unclaimed animals. Over time, this practice became deeply ingrained in the institutional culture of animal control facilities, shaping the operations of public animal shelters today.

The pound model normalized euthanasia as a primary function of animal shelters. Shelters frequently face overcrowding because of rising animal intakes and limited resources. When overwhelmed, they turn to euthanasia as the default solution, despite years of efforts to increase adoption and rehoming rates. For example, a significant rise in stray animal intakes often leads to a corresponding increase in the number of animals euthanized. Investigators concluded that these trends show how the system struggles to move beyond its origins of managing surplus animals through death.

The pound model also promotes a lack of transparency, an issue that continues in modern animal shelters. Historically, pounds operated out of public view, hiding the reality of widespread killing from the communities they served. Today, many shelters, particularly government-funded ones, still lack visibility, the authors noted. The public largely remains unaware of intake numbers, euthanasia rates, and resource disparities. This lack of accountability keeps outdated practices in place and obstructs meaningful reform.

Another issue is the reliance on confinement and caging. Shelters use cages to manage animals, but the conditions of confinement often lead to the justification of euthanasia. Overcrowded shelters quickly become breeding grounds for disease, with animals experiencing stress, illness, and behavioral decline. When shelters lack the resources to provide enrichment, medical care, or behavioral interventions, they label animals unadoptable and resort to euthanasia. This cycle reveals the systemic flaws of the pound model and its failure to prioritize animal welfare.

The pound model exacerbates wealth disparities across communities, a problem that continues to affect modern shelters. Shelters in lower-income areas often receive inadequate funding, resulting in outdated infrastructure, limited medical care, and higher euthanasia rates. In contrast, shelters in affluent areas benefit from generous philanthropic support, well-funded outreach programs, and strong adoption efforts. These disparities highlight a troubling connection between socioeconomic status and the quality of care provided to shelter animals. In wealthier communities, animals experience better outcomes, while those in underfunded shelters face a disproportionate risk.

We must envision alternative pathways that challenge its core assumptions to break free from the pound model. One promising example is the trap/neuter/return (TNR) approach for managing community cats. TNR disrupts the traditional sheltering model by sterilizing cats and returning them to their colonies rather than impounding them. This method prevents reproduction, while allowing cats to remain in their natural environment, and avoid the stress of confinement and the threat of euthanasia. TNR proves that humane alternatives exist, demonstrating the potential to move away from the caging-and-killing mindset.

Addressing the root causes of the current sheltering system requires a broader societal shift. Shelters must move away from using euthanasia as an acceptable solution and focus on life-saving strategies, such as spay/neuter programs, behavioral rehabilitation, and foster care networks. Transparency and accountability must also become central to shelter operations, with public awareness of intake and euthanasia rates driving support for policies and funding that promote humane outcomes for shelter animals. It is crucial to recognize that the system’s failures arise from its historical foundations, not from the actions of individual shelters or staff members. Although dedicated professionals and volunteers work tirelessly to save lives, they operate within a system that resists change. Path dependency, where past decisions limit future choices, explains why shelters often revert to the pound model when facing challenges. However, this path is not inevitable. Shelters can redefine their roles by rejecting the legacy of caging and killing and adopting new, more humane approaches to companion animal welfare.

Reimagining animal sheltering requires changing how we view free-roaming animals, moving away from seeing stray dogs and cats as threats to recognizing their place within our communities. Policies focused on coexistence, rather than control, can help dismantle the outdated ideologies of the pound model. Shelters can play a key role in this transformation by adopting progressive practices that prioritize animal welfare and strengthen the human-animal bond. The US stands at a pivotal moment, where the growing recognition of the flaws in the pound model creates an opportunity for change. Moving forward, we must commit to building a sheltering system grounded in compassion, transparency, and respect for all animals' lives.

Ava Landry is a 2026 Pharm D candidate at the University of Connecticut in Storrs, where she is studying veterinary pharmacy.

Guenther KM, Hassen K. Coming to terms with the legacies of the pound model in animal sheltering in the United States. 

. 2024;14(9):1254. doi:10.3390/ani14091254.

Reseachers find more humane solutions to be viable alternatives to euthanasia for managing overcrowding and other issues

Moving past the pound model in shelters

Now that 2025 is here, it’s the perfect time to step back and look at how the biggest stories of last year are likely to shape the months ahead. If you care about where veterinary medicine is heading – and how it might impact you – now’s the time to pay attention. So, let’s get into it.

In September 2024, Congresswomen Deborah Ross and Claudia Tenney introduced the People and Animals Well-being (PAW) Act, a bipartisan bill designed to make veterinary care more affordable.

 The proposed legislation would allow pet owners to use up to $1000 from Health Savings Accounts (HSAs) or Flexible Spending Accounts (FSAs) to cover veterinary expenses or purchase pet insurance. For service animals supporting veterans and individuals with disabilities, the bill offers unlimited coverage for veterinary costs.

Practices should keep an eye on the progress of the PAW Act as it can provide new opportunities to position and market their services. By leveraging tax-advantaged funds, clinics could promote subscriptions, wellness plans, and preventive care tailored to help clients maximize their benefits.

In late 2024, Colorado became the first state to officially adopt a veterinary midlevel practitioner role, the Veterinary Professional Associate (VPA). VPAs, equipped with a master’s degree, will be authorized to perform tasks like diagnosing, developing treatment plans, and performing surgeries under the supervision of licensed veterinarians. Will Colorado’s move serve as a precedent for broader adoption? According to Kevin O'Neill, vice president of state affairs for the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Florida, where a VPA bill passed unanimously in the House but faltered in the Senate, might resume its efforts in 2025.

 Wayne Jensen, DVM, PhD, MBA, a professor in the Department of Clinical Sciences, who has been spearheading the VPA initiative at Colorado State University, also said that he has been contacted by 3 other states interested in exploring this program.

The introduction of the VPA position has drawn mixed reactions within the veterinary community: supporters see it as a way to address workforce shortages and improve access to care, while critics question the adequacy of training and its potential impact on the roles of existing veterinary professionals. To learn more, check out webinar and statements

 from Gail C. Golab, DVM, PhD, MANZCVS, DACAW, associate executive vice president and chief veterinary officer at the AVMA, and Ashli Selke, CVT, RVT, immediate past president of The National Association of Veterinary Technicians in America, and member of the CVPA Legislative Committee, who offer valuable insights into this ongoing debate.

The private equity slowdown in veterinary medicine is officially over. Last year brought a surge of deal activity,

 from recapitalizations to strategic acquisitions, signaling that big investors are back in the game. What does this mean for 2025? More consolidation, but with a twist: groups are no longer just buying practices – they’re buying other groups.

Investors aren’t just throwing money at anything, though. The focus is shifting toward high-growth segments like de novo hospitals, emergency care, and mobile services. If you're looking to grow, just follow the money – whether that’s expanding into untapped markets, adding new service lines, or aligning with what investors are funding.

The pet insurance market is also undergoing rapid consolidation, with JAB Holding Company snatching up dozens of players in its quest to build a global insurance platform.

 Through its subsidiaries, Independence Pet Holdings and Pinnacle Pet Group, JAB now owns over 20 pet insurance brands operating in more than 10 countries. As of 2023, the combined equity value of these businesses was approximately $7 billion.

Centralizing a large portion of pet insurance under one entity – especially one that also owns major veterinary networks like National Veterinary Associates and Ethos Veterinary Health – could give JAB the power to influence pricing, shape policies on treatments or diagnostic tools, and drive referrals within its network. This might create challenges for independent hospitals trying to compete. However, with pet insurance adoption still low and the industry’s struggles with affordability and trust – amplified by issues like rising premiums and policy nonrenewals – these potential impacts are unlikely to materialize immediately. That said, practices should carefully evaluate their relationships with pet insurance providers and diversify partnerships to balance risk and opportunity. The bigger challenge for the industry remains finding ways to make pet insurance work for both providers and clients.

 Chewy, Inc made waves by launching Chewy Vet Care, a brand of pet health practices offering routine appointments, urgent care, and surgery. The first clinic opened in Florida, followed by Colorado, Georgia, and Texas, with 8 locations launched in total.

Chewy Vet Care is part of its ongoing drive to attract new customers, and, in combination with a proprietary app, “deepen their commitment to the Chewy ecosystem.”

 Chewy is banking on modern technology to deliver a personalized and memorable in-practice and post-visit experience – something that today’s pet owners not only value but increasingly expect. The takeaway for other practices? If you’re not using tools like online booking, digital communication channels, apps, or AI, you’re falling behind – and fast.

 is a growth consultant and speaker specializing in strategic guidance for veterinary businesses. He has held key roles in business development and partnerships at organizations, including Digitail, Galaxy Vets, and Veterinary Integration Solutions. Leech also hosts 

, a weekly podcast covering pet health trends, industry news, and insights.

Crossley K. Federal bill aims to help make veterinary care more affordable for pet owners. dvm360. September 10, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://www.dvm360.com/view/federal-bill-aims-to-help-make-veterinary-care-more-affordable-for-pet-owners

Wogan L. VIN News Service. Colorado voters send veterinary profession in new direction. November 7, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://news.vin.com/default.aspx?pid=210&Id=12364064&f5=1

The Bird Bath live webinar. Midlevel Practitioner Position: Will Other States Follow and What It Means for You. December 3, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

The Bird Bath. Midlevel Practitioner Webinar Follow-Up. December 12, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://thebirdbathvet.substack.com/p/the-bird-bath-midlevel-practitioner

Leech R. What a Year It Was. Today’s Veterinary Business. December 1, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://todaysveterinarybusiness.com/2024-veterinary-industry-1224/

JAB Diversifies Beyond Consumer Goods and Services. News release. JAB. May 13, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20240513451120/en/JAB-Diversifies-Beyond-Consumer-Goods-and-Services

JAB letter to Senators Warren and Blumenthal. December 16, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://www.jabholco.com/documents/6/JABLetterPet-Care.pdf

Chewy Sees Promise in Vet Clinics and Payoff From App Investments. PYMNTS. August 28, 2024. Accessed January 9, 2025. 

https://www.pymnts.com/earnings/2024/chewy-sees-promise-vet-clinics-payoff-from-app-investments/

Follow the money, technology, and policy shifts